Advice on delegated powers may be obtained from Transport Department headquarters. The cycle time is the sum of the stage times. It is normally used for early discharge of left turners ahead of other movements at the sarae approach. A ii and P.. PO Late start overlap See 2. Total lost time per cycle is the summation of these lost times for the critical phases ulus other lost times due to red-archer periods, all red periods and pedestrian green and flashing pjreen times.
A series of phases is usually arranged in a pre-determined order hut some phases can he omitted if required by the situation. Some semi-vehicle-actuated signals also operate one or more demand-dependent stages within a fixed cycle time. Stages usually, hut not always contain a green period. They are arranged to follow each other in a pre-determined order "but stages can be skipped, if not demanded, to reduce delay.
Transport and "Road "Research Laboratory for optimising signal timings. M, Kimber, M. The overall capacity of a road network is limited by the capacity of individual junctions in the road network.
Failure to provide the correct type of layout at one particular junction may result in accidents, congestion and delay to an extent which mav impair the efficiency of the road systeta over a wide area. If at all possible a second primary signal is installed if there is a central island or central divider, at the other end of and 1 rn beyond the stopline. Minimum visibility distances from the primary signals as given in Table 2. Table 2. The secondary signal may be opposite the outer approach lane or within an arc of 30 degrees towards the offside of the centre lane extended into the junction from the stop line and should be as close as possible illustrated by Diagram 2.
If long distances of the order of 60m or more are unavoidable, then additional signals may be necessary. For wide approaches exceeding four lanes additional secondary signals should also be considered.
When the signal method of control contains a right turn overlap, extreme care should be used in the siting of secondary signals for the direction of flow which loses right of way first - the secondary signal in this case should not be places beyond the junction.
See 2. In siting the controller due consideration should also be given to minimize visual intrusion and impediment to pedestrians which the controller could give rise to. It is therefore considered that in narrow footpaths or congested areas cranked post or cantilever installation would be more appropriate.
In addition, the designer should also visit the site and determine the pole arrangement before commencement of civil works by either Highways Department, Territory Development Department, Civil Engineering Department, Developers and so on. Such a period is built into signal controllers and is knom as the minimum green period. With the exception of the cases mentioned below, the shortest minmum green period normally used is five seconds but site conditions may require a longer period.
On early cut off and late start stages the minimum may be as low as three seconds. To hold all streams and release each in turn will remove all conflicts but will not be satisfactory since delays to all traffic will be high and effective capacity of the junction will be low. Ensuring that the time allotted to each stage is appropriate to actual traffic flow.
Matching if possible, fi y' values for flows operating within the same phrase. Traffic on opposite arms flow simultaneously while those on the other two arms are stopped. Each arm may have one or more lanes approach but the right turning traffic may impede vehicles wishing to proceed over the junction if the road width is restricted. This is an example of a shared stop line with simultaneous discharge and the three light display with a full green light signal is used. If the right turn manoeuvre is removed then reduced delay and improved capacity can be expected.
Where one exists, an alternative route can be indicated to traffic before the junction is reached. Usually motorists can turn left before the junction, make two right turns to appear at the junction on the left hand arm known as a 6 g' turn. Alternatively motorists can pass through the junction, turn left and make two further left turns to appear at the junction on the left arm known as a 4 q' turn.
In the latter case the diverted traffic will pass through the junction twice and may adversely affect the expected improvements. This will permit the right turn queue to discharge without conflict and to allow any traffic passing over the junction, which has been delayed by the right turn traffic, to clear the approach.
This arrangement is known as an indicative green arrow. If traffic demand is sufficient, it is possible to show an additional left turn green arrow i. Care must be taken to avoid danger to pedestrians from the left turn traffic.
Such traffic must be provided with at least one independent lane. The display will have a three light head with the additional green arrow on the primary.
Sn "dninun width placed at or near the centre of the carriageway are mainly for the benefit of pedestrians. They enable pedestrians to cross the road in two halves and pedestrians ray taVe refuse there while they are waiting for p-aps to cross the road. Islands conveniently provide space for housing traffic signals posts and signals and nay also "be used for channelizing; traffic. When islands are used the width remaining to traffic on either side of then pust be checked for minimum provision allowance.
G-n although 2. They may not, however, be suitable for areas where kerbside interference, e. It is generally recomnended to have the sane number of lanes on the exit side of the intersection as there are straight ahead lanes exclusively or partly used by straight-ahead traffic on the approach side. Tf, however site conditions render it necessary to have fever lanes on the exit side of the intersection, a distance of about m should be allowed for merging to take place illustrated in "Diagrar..
With this arrangement locking of turning movement cannot occur but visibility is likelv to be restricted. T iaprrarn P. The layout shown in diagram P. A, pedestrian refuge is usually placed at or near the centre of a single carriageway if the widtns remaining to traffic in the two directions are sufficient.
See Chapter "5 for further details At sites where pedestrian signals are not provided it is generally desirable that the vehicle signal indications should be visible to pedestrians as an aid in judging when to cross.
Each signal face shall unless otherwise specified contain three optical systems arranged vertically each having a nominal diameter of mm. Where green arrow optical system is used as either green arrow or substitute green arrow, it should preferably be of mm nominal diameter, although an alternative mm one may also be used. The mm green arrow should only be used when it is impossible to use the mm lens.
The height of the centre of the green lens from the surface of the carriageway in its immediate vicinity shall be, where light signals are placed at the side of the carriageway, not less than 2. T f characteristic when illuminated is used in tram signals. In the latter arrangement the illumination of the f T f will be preceded by a red and amber light signal. It may indicate a movement to the left, to the right or straight ahead only. An arrow indication in this position must always be preceded by a red and amber light signal.
The direction of any green arrow may be varied to suit the particular circumstances providing that no arrow points below the horizontal position and that no adjacent arrows point within 45 degrees of one another. When green arrows are used drivers have cone to expect an exclusive right of way and conflicting movements should therefore be avoided.
K5 To enhance the visibility of signals, high intensity type of signals should be used and backing boards should also be used wherever space permits, especially where external illuminations such as advertising signs would undermine the conspicuity of the signal aspects, or where signals are facing in the east west direction and there is visibility problem caused by the low sun.
Signals A wig-wag signal is a special type of signal used to facilitate fire appliances and ambulance vehicles exiting from Fire Stations and ambulance stations. As shown in Diagram 2. Operated from the Fire Stations, the red signal aspects will be lit up in an alternate and intermittent manner, simultaneously with the alarm bells, to indicate the prohibition that other vehicular traffic shall not proceed beyond the signals.
An electrically operated lift-barrier at, tfee eaeqeoDey crossing in the central divider is also a a«»Qa feature used together with wig-wag to allow e»ergeeey velticles to gain access to the other carriageway. The green signal and the red signal are shown for periods which are reasonably variable between a minimum and a preset maximum, but they can remain unchanged in one state during low traffic periods in vehicle-actuated signals.
Diagram 2. Superimposed on this figure is the designations of each phase if the junction is considered to be under phase control. Stages usually, but not always, contain a green period. They are arranged to follow each other in a predetermined order but stages can be omitted, if not demanded, to reduce needless delay. Where two or more streams are always signalled to proceed simultaneously then they may share the same phase.
Two or more phases may overlap in time. A series of phases is usually arranged in a predetermined order but some phases may be omitted if not demanded and if it is safe to do so.
A complete series of stages during which all traffic movements are served in turn is known as a cycle. The cycle time is the sum of each of the stage times.
T Jhere appreciable right turning traffic is the determining factor in choosing the intergreen period, the fipures given in Table II should be used and attention is drawn to the note regarding pedestrians. On high speed roads, some controllers have the facility to extend the intergreen period on a maximum green termination. Such a period is built into signal controllers and is known as the minimum green period.
Tvnicallv this will be where large numbers of heavy vehicles have difficulty ir starting away from the stop line or the approach is on a steep gradient. Where pedestrians and traffic share the sane stage the minimum gieen period nay be governed bv the time required bv pedestrians to clear the crossing.
The art of designing an installation is in reducing the delay and increasing the capacity while still maintaining a high degree of safety. Reduction in total delay and improvement in capacity can be achieved by :- a utilising the lowest practicable number of stages in any signal cycle. The aim is always to keep as much traffic moving as practicable at the same time. Traffic on opposite arms flow simultaneously while that on the other two arms are stopped. Usually motorists can turn left before the junction, make two right turns to appear at the junction on the left hand arm known as a 'g 1 turn.
Alternatively motorists can pass through the junction, turn left and make two further left turns to appear at the junction on the left arm known as a 'q 1 turn. The signal display on the arm which loses right of way at the end of the first stage should be sited with care and in particular the secondarv signal should not be placed beyond the junction. Care raust be taken to avoid danger to pedestrians from the left turn traffic.
During the second stage a red signal will be displayed together with the green arrow. The green arrow will be extinguished when the full green signal appears at the start of the third stage. The signal arrangement is the three lipht display without any additional green arrows. See "Diagram P. Traffic Signals 2. A vehicle-actuated signal responds to demands recorded for the various directions of flow on street. Once a green has been given to a particular direction of flow, the length of green for that direction will be extended until all the traffic has passed through the junction, or the maximum green times for that direction has timed out.
Vehicle actuated signals will be most appropriate for isolated junctions where co-ordination with other signals is not important and for locations with fluctuating light or medium traffic flows. The various facts of vehicle actuated operation are discussed below.
This demand is stored in the controller which will serve stages in cyclic order omitting any stages for which no demand has been received. Where it is essential that one stage must always follow another, the appearance of the first stage will automaticallv insert a demand for the second stage. When a stage loses right of way on a maximum change, then a demand is inserted for a reversion to that stage after other demands have been met. On expiry of the last extension and no nore vehicles are detected, the signal controller will answer a demand of another stage at the end of the minimum green period See 2.
If vehicles continue to extend the green period and a demand exists for another stage, the green signal will be terminated on expiry of a preset maximum period after the demand has been received.
The extension Deriod required for each of the three vehicle detector loops is usually 1. A steep approach will require a longer extension. However if the extensions are set too long, the response of the vehicle actuation will be sluggish under normal traffic conditions and thus results in loss of capacity. Usually the maximum period starts at the beginning of the green period if vehicles are waiting on any halted phase, or at the time the first vehicle passes over the detector on any halted phase, whichever is the later.
Thus the period may be regarded as a maximum waiting period rather than a maximun green period. With a change of right of way owing to the expiry of the maximum period, provision is made for the right-of-way to return to the original road as soon as traffic conditions on the other roads permit i. If the traffic is fairly heavy on all phases the green periods may run successively to maximum, giving in effect fixed-time operation. Many signals in large cities operate in this manner during peak hours.
The sum of the maximum green periods for each stage, plus the sum of the intergreen periods between eacb stage in cyclic order will give the maximum cycle time for the signal. Tt is usually not recomnended that cycle times in excess of seconds are used. Some modern microprocessor controllers incorporate complex algorithms which attempt to reconcile heavy and continuing demand on the main route with smaller demands on the side roads. In these controllers the maximun green period varies in accordance with the traffic conditions.
The green period on the side road can be extended in the normal way by successive demands up to a pre-set maximum. After right-of-way has been returned to the main road, it cannot be taken away from the main road until the pre-set period has expired. Another modified form of V.
These demand dependent stages which may consist of vehicle phases isuch as right turn traffic, minor flows or pedestrian phases may be skipped or extended in accordance with the prevailing situation detected.
The advantage of this type of signals is that a fixed cycle time can be maintained for linking with surrounding controllers and some limited V. Signals i Priniitive pneumatic detectors have been superseded by the more popular inductive loop detectors.
Micro-wave detectors are also used but because of problems inherent with the method of detection such as long detection distances, inability to detect stationary vehicles, shielding of detection by other vehicles etc. Vehicles passing over the loop cause a change in the inductance of the loop and a count is registered in a detector unit. Provided that the loops detectors are properly installed and maintained they will work reliably and offer very efficient vehicle detection because of their more precise indication of vehicle presence.
The loops are designated X, Y, and Z, the X loops being that farthest fro r n the intersection and the Z loop the nearest to the intersection. Demands will normally oiiginate from the X detector whereas extensions are front the Y and Z detectors. When the green period commences, vehicles take some time to start and to accelerate to normal running speed, but after a few seconds, the queue discharges at a more or less constant rate which is termed the 'saturation flow'.
Signal approaches are sometimes locally widened to provide an additional lane near the junction. When the additional lane at the stopline is available for a distance back from the stopline at least sufficient to contain one full cycle capacity of traffic, the above methods of estimation of saturation flow apply. If the signal approach is only widened very close to the stopline, then the above formulae may be a considerable overestimate capacity. A more realistic approach capacity should be deduced from entry lanes before widening plus an allowance for extra vehicles stored every cycle in the additional lane provided near the intersection.
In these circumstances, on site estimation of saturation flow will be necessary. The gradient should be taken on the average slope between the stopline and a point on the approach 60m before it.
If the whole expression becomes negative the effective loss should be taken to be zero. The actual effects of a stopping bus are complex and will vary considerably depending on bus stop location, bus dwell time, parking activity, lane configuration and traffic volume.
Until further research is accomplished, it is recommended that a p. Designers should also refer to Section 2. Direct measurements are however definitely worthwhile for critical intersections working near saturation as the direct measurements will provide more accurate flows for detailed signal plan preparation or junction capacity analysis.
Road Note No. It is usually satisfactory to carry out such counts commencing, say, 5 seconds after the traffic has started so as to eliminate starting delays and continuing the count until traffic begins to 'tail off 1. A reasonably consistent value of saturation flow could usually be obtained after several counts.
Where an early cut-off or late start is to be used in connection with a right turn the f y f values for the right turn and for the approach with shortened time should be added together to represent one phase unless the straight on traffic on the same approach as the right turn has a higher value, when this latter figure should be taken.
In designing linked signals a cycle time should be chosen which provides a margin over this minimum possible cycle time for the key intersection. It will be of good practice to limit cycle times to below 90 seconds and where this is not intended due to capacity reasons, careful checking of site conditions should be made to ensure that pedestrians are not being endangered. In designing for new junctions the maximum operating cycle time should be limited to 90 seconds.
If they are included, the minimum green times for the minor movements could well be dictated by parallel pedestrian crossing green times. This could well considerably distort the green split calculation. In practice, for maximum reserve capacity assessment, a maximum cycle tine of seconds should be adopted. However it should be noted that for new installations, the maximum operating cycle time should be limited to 90 seconds See 2. A practical capacity of 90 per cent of this maximum possible flow, which produces generally acceptable delays, is recommended.
Yult « 0. For minor movements particularly, the minimum green tine for the approach can well be dictated by the parallel pedestrian crossing green times. This could well considerably distort the R. Most of the useful formula have been incorporated so that a designer may perform signal calculations without referring back to the Manual. The designer nay also use his own discretion in using the worksheet in part only, or Piodifying it to suit his particular purpose.
Time of day s Sheet No. In designing a signal controlled junction it may be of interest to know the average delay for vehicle and what extensions of delay are likely to occur, especially when there are other intersection nearby. It will be seen that when the flow reaches about 90 per cent of the capacity the delay rises steeply and theoretically the delay increases to infinity as the flow tends to the ultimate capacity, thus yielding excessively high results.
In practice oversaturdtion can happen with less serious results. When flow exceeds capacity, queues will build up at a stready rate and the resulting delay and queue length nay also be estimated as a function of time. For estimation purposes, a queuing length per vehicle of 6.
Site observations and signal offset timing adjustments are usually helpful when backing back problems occur. It may "be necessary, if revealed in Step 4 or Step 7, to modify the layout to cater for turning movements, pedestrians or to enhance capacity.
It may be identified at this stage that the assumed method of control would need adjustment before carrying on. Make adequate allowance in calculations for parallel pedestrian minimum green crossing times. In critical cases the saturation flows for important movements may have to be measured on site. A lower standard nay be adopted for existing junctions where further improvement is restricted by space limitations.
If to provide good linking the cycle chosen results in a very low degree of saturation and a very high reserve capacity, consideration should be given to double - or triple - cycling this junction within the linking group i. It may be necessary to try other cycle time if the results are not satisfactory.
Offsets for linking signals may be prepared with the aid of time-distance diagrams. Refer to section 5. Standard symbols to drg. KT and B. See section 2. No allowance is made above for right turning traffic and appropriate reductions to carriageway widths should be made where required.
Normally pedestrian phases should be provided wherever practicable. Reference should be made to section 3. Alternatively, one of the techniques given in paragraphs 3. The presence of traffic signals at an intersection, even without the provision of red and green man displays, does provide assistance to pedestrians in crossing the arras of a junction.
This is particularly so where refuges are available and in many cases no further facility is necessary. An extended all red period between two traffic stages to assist pedestrians is not recommended.
This practice leads to increased delays to traffic and to driver disobedience since the extended period will always be present even when there are no pedestrians. This method will cause delay to traffic. The facility should be called by demand from push buttons which should be provided at all points where pedestrians may cross. Where the crossing is across a dual carriageway, additional push buttons at the central reserve should also be considered. Diagram 3. Although pedestrians may be allowed to cross any of the approaches to an intersection there will usually be one approach upon which the pedestrian problem is most acute.
The pedestrian stage should immediately follow the end of the vehicle stage on this approach. The controller should be arranged to ensure that on termination of the pedestrian period the right of way will revert to a nominated stage in the absence of other demands. Pedestrians may then cross the road diagonally as well as at right angles within the area. Should the area cover a junction of roads, a separate pedestrian phase will, have to be provided and the pedestrian green and flashing green times should be so designed as to cater for those pedestrians crossing diagonally.
This may affect the efficiency of the signal control method and adversely affect the throughput capacity at the junction. Reference should be made to the Transport Planning and Design manual Vol. By virtue of banned turns pedestrian facilities can be provided across appropriate arms. In order to reduce the possibility of vehicles turning illegally kerb radii should be squared off as in diagram.
This facility can be usefully employed at a "T" junction with a one way street where road widths permit, by installing a triangular island in the mouth of the side road. The left and right turning movements from the side road pass either side of the main road between the segregated flows when the side road traffic has the right of way.
Diagrams 3. Pedestrians can negotiate one half of the carriageway at the normal stop line when traffic on that approach is held on red. Normal pedestrian signals are shown during this period.
The other half of the carriageway is controlled by separate signals which are located at the opposite end of the island. Normally the stagger should be at least one crossing width in order to alert pedestrians that the crossing is in two halves. A right-hand stagger Diagram 3. A left-handed stager Diagram 3. Under the latest transport policy, we have pledged to provide better facilities for the pedestrian. In this regard, staggered pedestrian crossing is considered a less desirable T -P- D.
The central refuge island is often not large enough when the pedestrian flows are heavy. Therefore, the use of staggered crossing for new crossings should be restrained as far as possible It should only be used as a last resort to solve the capacity problem and its use should be brought to the attention of the Chief Traffic Engineer of respective Traffic Engineering Divisions for approval, 3.
The crossing may be provided across the Ml width of the carriageway and not more than 50m from the mouth of the junction. The stage is incorporated within the junction signal cycle and the stage position chosen to impede the minimum of traffic flow.
Normally each signal face shall contain two optical systens arranged vertically, the upper red standing man and the lower green walking man of mn nominal diameter. An alternative size of mm nominal diameter may be used when specified. Pedestrian signal aspects should be positioned so that pedestrians looking at these aspects are also looking towards the direction from which the traffic is approaching. The red signal when illuminated by a steady light shall indicate to a pedestrian that he shall not cross or start to cross the carriageway at the crossing.
Red stationary man. Additional push buttons are also necessary on wide refuges where pedestrians may be trapped at the end of the pedestrian stage. It is advisable to have push buttons located at each aide of the pedestrian crossing, so that pedestrian approaching from either direction have to pass a push button before reaching the crossing.
Usually the controller would be arranged to ensure that on termination of the pedestrian period the right of way will revert to a nominated stage in the absence of other demands. The set up consists of a post-mounted audible signal device which emits different patterns of audible signal, representing different pedestrians signal indications e. This would apply to traffic signals in urban areas and in new towns, and the measures below should be followed: - a The level of audible signal emitted should be set according to the background noise level.
The pole should be installed so that the ATS is preferably mm above ground level. Where part time operation is required for specific locations the ATS would operate between hours. But the hardwares themselves are not installed unless required later.
TE Divisions may reduce the noise level of ATS's or introduce part time operations if these measures are considered necessary for particular locations, Caution should be exercised where two ATS would be operating on different signal phases for two adjacent crossings, such that the ATS for one crossing would not be confused with the ATS of the other crossing, e. The footway at the crossing position shall be provided with a drop kerb to assist pedestrians, except for at the corner radius where there is a danger that the back wheel of left turning vehicles may run over the kerb.
They are an effective and popular aid to pedestrians. Guard rails should always be provided on large islands where staggered pedestrian movements are allowed. Normally minimum length of guard rails provided at each side of a crossing should be 15 m. An assumed walking speed of 1. A staggered crossing will be considered as two separate crossings where pedestrians are expected to cross the road by two attempts.
Where there is no central refuge the minimum length of the green period should allow pedestrians to clear half of the road width. Normally minimum green periods less than 5 sec are considered too short and are not recommended. This is to ensure that the last vehicle should clear the crossing by the time the pedestrian green signal is lit.
Vehicle green times should also be checked, as excessive vehicle green can lead to traffic speeding through the junction and can also lead to non-observance of the signals by pedestrians. Adjustments may be made to the width or green time proportion where appropriate.
However the width of the crossing should not normally exceed 9m. Table 3. Care is particularly required with regard to this in respect of the central refuge where crossings are staggered. It is recommended that a minimum average pedestrian area occupancy of 0. They are particularly dangerous to pedestrians in situations where one movement will start to move as soon as the adjacent split movement loses its right of way.
In these circumstances channelising islands should be constructed to separate the split movements and provide refuges for pedestrians to wait. If the islands cannot be provided consideration should be given to removing the crossing and relocating it elsewhere.
Volume 2 Section 3. The minimum width as indicated should be 1. Guard railing - guard railing is used to prevent pedestrians from stepping on to the road and to guide them on to the crossings. Minimum length of guard railing should be 15m wherever possible at each side of the crossing. Dropped kerb - Dropped kerb should be used for the full width of the crossing.
Pedestrian push buttons - pedestrian push buttons, if provided, should be installed at both sides of the crossing on both sides of the road and at the central divider, 3. A straight crossing is normally preferred to a staggered crossing as pedestrians can cross the road in one attempt and consequently will experience less delay. This will tend to minimise jay-walking.
These crossings should be so sited to attract the maximum number of pedestrians who would otherwise cross the road at random, and also to give drivers adequate opportunity to recognize them in time to stop safely. Appropriate warning signs should be erected where visibility distances, are at or below Absolute Minimum. They may fail to achieve either, thus putting themselves and others at risk.
High approach speeds also result in drivers misjudging the lengths of paps in opposing traffic when making a ripht turn at the junction which in turn increases the risk of accidents occurring. Right turning movement, across high speed flows should be channelised and controlled with a separate vehicle phase. Volume 3 'Traffic Sip-nq! Normally the signals are installed as additional primary signals near and to the right of the middle of the carriageway.
Overhead signals should not be used on approaches where the method of control involves separate control for split movements. It is of utmost importance to ensure that such signal installations are well maintained.
Foad Research Technical Paper No. Manual Vol 3, Chapter 2 - P. When this queue is released as the green is given, it will discharge initially at its maximum rate i. The traffic plans, or signals setting can then "be selected according to the day of week and time of day. A prerequisite to this kind of system is that the controllers should be synchronized and capable of multi-plan operation.
The slope of diagonal lines represent the chosen speed of progression and green phases of successive junctions are offset in time.
Normally the problem is one of determining by trial and error, the optimum through-band speed and width for a fixed cycle time.
It may also be necessary to take into account other requirements such as demands from cross-street traffic. The situation may be reversed in the evening peak. Spare green time should be allocated as required to clear traffic turning into the nain route from side roads in order not to delay the through platoons or to traffic in the opposite direction.
To minimize congestion, opportunities for leaving the system should also be greater than for entering. Vehicle-actuated signals may be used for a flexible progressive system.
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